Corrosion in agricultural industry

The agricultural industry typically falls under a low corrosive environment, unless we talk about the production plants for fertilizers.

For other equipment such as pumps, pipes, and fixtures used in the farms and fields, corrosion is critical only when there is a failure that causes leakage of water or stops the water flow entirely.

Further, the relatively cleaner air with minimal contaminants results in delayed external corrosion.

In this article, I will show two photos that will present how the corrosion in a field progresses.

The first picture on the left was captured in January 2024 and the second one in August 2024.

The pump part was already in the process of corrosion. Over the period of 7 months, the coating to the right of the fixture peeled off completely. This included more than 5 months of summer and 2 months of rainfall.

The second part observed was a valve.

The valve itself shows a darker shade in the August image on the right. Further, the coating in the pipe section connected to the vertical pipe in the January image was not intact. It shows mild blistering exactly at the circumference of the connections. The coating peeled off in the section after 7 months, as shown in the red circle.

These images show that while the corrosion may be delayed as compared with the other industries, it can still substantially affect the operations in the farms. Especially during summer, when the water supply is intermittent, the equipment must work at required times to prevent any drying or damage to the crops.

Hence, it is critical that the coatings used for the external corrosion protection of pump parts must have abrasion resistance. This will ensure that they are resistant to corrosion as well as to the dust and soil particles flowing through the coating.

โŽ ๐Ÿ‘ ๐ญ๐ก๐ข๐ง๐ ๐ฌ ๐ญ๐ก๐š๐ญ ๐ก๐š๐ฏ๐ž ๐ก๐š๐ซ๐ฆ๐ž๐ ๐ฆ๐จ๐ซ๐ž ๐œ๐š๐ซ๐ž๐ž๐ซ๐ฌ ๐ญ๐ก๐š๐ง ๐ฐ๐ž ๐ฐ๐จ๐ฎ๐ฅ๐ ๐ฅ๐ข๐ค๐ž ๐ญ๐จ ๐›๐ž๐ฅ๐ข๐ž๐ฏ๐ž

๐Ÿ”ด ๐๐ž๐ž๐ซ ๐š๐ง๐ ๐Ÿ๐š๐ฆ๐ข๐ฅ๐ข๐š๐ซ ๐ฉ๐ซ๐ž๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฎ๐ซ๐ž ๐ญ๐จ ๐ฌ๐ญ๐ข๐œ๐ค ๐ญ๐จ ๐š ๐ญ๐ซ๐š๐๐ข๐ญ๐ข๐จ๐ง๐š๐ฅ ๐ฉ๐š๐ญh ๐จ๐Ÿ ๐ž๐๐ฎ๐œ๐š๐ญ๐ข๐จ๐ง ๐š๐ง๐ ๐ฉ๐จ๐ฌ๐ญ-๐ž๐๐ฎ๐œ๐š๐ญ๐ข๐จ๐ง ๐œ๐š๐ซ๐ž๐ž๐ซ.

This is typical of most cultures in Asia. You must complete your graduation, go for a post-graduation, and get a job in the same exact field. The education is expected to be sufficient to ensure a lifelong career in the chosen field.

The thought process is understandable as a single career path is simpler when the motive is to begin work ASAP. Several people have done exceedingly well by doing exactly this. 

But some of you couldn’t or weren’t able to get a job and have doubted themselves and their life choices. That brings us to point#2.

๐Ÿ”ด ๐Ÿ”ด ๐™๐ž๐ซ๐จ ๐ค๐ง๐จ๐ฐ๐ฅ๐ž๐๐ ๐ž ๐จ๐Ÿ ๐ญ๐ก๐ž ๐๐ข๐ฏ๐ž๐ซ๐ฌ๐ž ๐จ๐ฉ๐ญ๐ข๐จ๐ง๐ฌ ๐ญ๐ก๐š๐ญ ๐จ๐ง๐ž ๐œ๐š๐ง ๐ญ๐š๐ค๐ž ๐š๐Ÿ๐ญ๐ž๐ซ ๐š ๐ญ๐ซ๐š๐๐ข๐ญ๐ข๐จ๐ง๐š๐ฅ ๐๐ž๐ ๐ซ๐ž๐ž

This primarily stems from point#1, where the you are not exposed to options and are conditioned to follow the known path. There are so many certifications and cross-functional courses that can serve as great options to the traditional path. However, neither are the teachers aware of them, nor are the industry people willing to share this knowledge.

These options are in fact immensely useful for those of you who couldn’t follow a traditional path for some reason.

But, there’s a bump, which is point#3.

๐Ÿ”ด ๐Ÿ”ด ๐Ÿ”ด ๐…๐ž๐š๐ซ ๐š๐ง๐ ๐ซ๐ž๐ฅ๐ฎ๐œ๐ญ๐š๐ง๐œ๐ž ๐ญ๐จ ๐œ๐ก๐š๐ง๐ ๐ž ๐œ๐š๐ซ๐ž๐ž๐ซ๐ฌ ๐จ๐ซ ๐Ÿ๐ข๐ž๐ฅ๐๐ฌ ๐จ๐Ÿ ๐ž๐ฑ๐ฉ๐ž๐ซ๐ญ๐ข๐ฌ๐ž.

Whether you are on the traditional path or not, there comes a point when you have to let go of some or all parts of your education. You may do it by choice or by force. 

While you are aware that this is the right choice, you may be plagued by “๐ฟ๐‘œ๐‘” ๐‘˜๐‘ฆ๐‘Ž ๐‘˜๐‘Žโ„Ž๐‘’๐‘›๐‘”๐‘’?” “๐‘Šโ„Ž๐‘Ž๐‘ก ๐‘ค๐‘–๐‘™๐‘™ ๐‘๐‘’๐‘œ๐‘๐‘™๐‘’ ๐‘ ๐‘Ž๐‘ฆ” syndrome. “๐‘Šโ„Ž๐‘ฆ ๐‘ค๐‘œ๐‘ข๐‘™๐‘‘ ๐‘ โ„Ž๐‘’/โ„Ž๐‘’ ๐‘ค๐‘Ž๐‘ ๐‘ก๐‘’ ๐‘ก๐‘–๐‘š๐‘’ ๐‘–๐‘› ๐‘ ๐‘ก๐‘ข๐‘‘๐‘ฆ๐‘–๐‘›๐‘” ๐ด๐ต๐ถ ๐‘–๐‘“ ๐‘’๐‘ฃ๐‘’๐‘›๐‘ก๐‘ข๐‘Ž๐‘™๐‘™๐‘ฆ ๐‘ โ„Ž๐‘’/โ„Ž๐‘’ ๐‘ค๐‘’๐‘Ÿ๐‘’ ๐‘”๐‘œ๐‘–๐‘›๐‘” ๐‘ก๐‘œ ๐‘ค๐‘œ๐‘Ÿ๐‘˜ ๐‘–๐‘› ๐‘‹๐‘Œ๐‘ ๐‘“๐‘–๐‘’๐‘™๐‘‘?” 

Do you know who says this? Those people who are hellbent on point#1.

This thought process stops you from progressing in your field wholeheartedly even if you know it is perfect for you.

Choose what’s good for you!

So, if you have ever felt hampered by any of these points, this is your sign to take the decision that is right for you. If you feel you wish to do more or change things, go for it. We have only so many years to be healthy enough to work full-time in a job of our liking!

#thoughtleadership #personaldevelopment #jobs #career #leadership #skillsdevelopment

3 LinkedIn tips for incoming graduate students (and a bonus tip)

Every year, several thousand students go on to study postgraduate courses.

Here are 3 tips to take your postgraduate journey from a great start to a stellar end!

TIP # 1

Build your online presence.

In today’s times of social media, the first thing everyone does is Google a person’s name. Hence, you must build a positive online presence that demonstrates your expertise in your field. People who type your name must find your professional social media accounts first.

So, if you already have a LinkedIn account, awesome! If you don’t, now is the time to make one. LinkedIn must be used to not only connect with your peers but also showcase your knowledge. Go to the next tips to know more about this.

If you are into research, you can also make a Google Scholar account and a ResearchGate account. Ensure that you definitely make an ORCID account.

TIP # 2

Post on LinkedIn regularly.

The most common mistake that all the students do is to become active on LinkedIn only when they are about to finish their course and are looking for a job.

This is too late in the day!

You have to become active from day one.

Post regularly on your profile. It can be small writeups on fundamentals, an interesting news or research article, or a great photo showcasing a concept.

Remember to use proper hashtags, but not too many.

AND FOR THE SAKE OF EVERYTHING HOLY, DO NOT USE AI! It takes the fun out of writing what you feel and you end up spewing content that is soulless, verbose, and irrelevant.

TIP #3

Explore career paths.

LinkedIn is not only for connecting with peers. It is also a tool to explore the various career paths of the experienced people in your field.

Check out the profiles of the middle and senior management. Go through their education and certifications.

Research and see if you find anything that you would want to pursue. Join groups to expand your network.

BONUS TIP!

Learn a language – native, foreign, or programming

Learning a language has multiple advantages. Programming languages introduce you to the world of technological advancements and software in your field.

Learning a native language expands your horizons in different parts of your country.

Learning a foreign language puts you on a global scale.

Ensure that you reach at least B1 or B2 level to be able to converse and understand the natives.

Wrapping up

The world is no more what it was when I graduated almost ten years ago. For us, postgraduation was the ultimate goal. We didn’t really think about what kind of job profile we would like, leaving us confused for several years.

However, today, you can narrow down the exact career path you wish to take. So, start early and make the most of LinkedIn to soar the heights of a stalwart career!

Anhydride curing of epoxy coating

In the previous post, we discussed the concept of epoxy coating and the reaction between an amine hardener and an epoxy resin. You can read this post here.

In this post, we will discuss the reactions between epoxy resins and other types of hardeners such as phenol, anhydride, and thiol.

Epoxy resin with anhydride hardener

Acid anhydride curing agents are diacid molecules from which water molecules have been eliminated. This removal of water is a reversible reaction, and the anhydride curing agent can change their molecular structure if they come in contact with moisture.

The following image shows the typical structure of an anhydride curing agent molecule.

Figure: Transformation of diacid molecule to anhydride molecule due to water elimination

This reaction differs from the one between amine and epoxy because here different parts of the epoxy resin react with the hardener. The amine reaction is only between the epoxide group and the amine reaction. Let us go through the main steps for the epoxy-anhydride reaction.

Reaction mechanism

The reaction proceeds as described in the following steps:

  • In this scheme of reactions, the O atom in the anhydride reacts with the epoxide group as well as the hydroxyl group in the resin but not in the same step.
  • In the beginning, the oxide ring in anhydride opens up. The O atom in anhydride takes the H atom from the OH group in the epoxy resin backbone chain. This O atom combines with one of the C atoms from the anhydride. Here, the epoxide ring is not affected.
  • Next, the combined anhydride-epoxy molecule reacts with another epoxy resin molecule. Here, the OH group in the anhydride loses the H atom. The remaining O atom breaks the epoxide ring and connects one of the C atoms in the epoxide ring. Please note that all the epoxide rings do not open up at the same time in the same reaction. Every epoxide ring requires an OH group to open up.
  • The tertiary molecules thus formed then react with each other or other unreacted epoxide groups. Here one epoxide group from one molecule reacts with the OH group from another molecule to form a crosslinking network.
  • This reaction continues until all the epoxy resins are crosslinked with ether (C-O-C-) groups in the backbone chain.
Figure: Reaction scheme of epoxy and anhydride reactions to form epoxy coating

Such a complex reaction mechanism results in a long pot life of the coating as the molecules take time to react with each other in multiple ways.

Features of the reaction mechanism

  • Requires heat for curing
  • Needs catalysts and a small amount of moisture for reaction initiation
  • There is no definite end for the cure cycle. The curing is deemed completed when the curing cycle is stopped. This does not mean that all the molecules have reacted completely.
  • Anhydrides can react with water before mixing and curing and lose their reactivity to epoxy resin.

Advantages of anhydride-cured epoxy

  • High chemical resistance – due to the low number of reactive sites and higher crosslinking
  • High Tg and thermal resistance – as the greater crosslinking and interlinking make it difficult for the polymer chains to become flexible
  • High dielectric strength – due to less moisture penetration and a greater amount of reacted molecules
  • Low toxicity – as no other chemical is used for reaction and the original chemicals react with each other till the end of the cure cycle
  • Low cure shrinkage and exotherm – as the high amount of crosslinking makes the coating stiffer and resistant to shrinking of polymer chains.

Wrap up

The properties of the coating are related to how the polymer chains are formed during the reaction. hence, to remember the properties, it is crucial to relate them to the reaction mechanism and the resulting morphology for the coating chains.

In this article, we dealt with the epoxy-anhydride reactions. In the next article, we will talk about the thiol and phenol curing agents and their reactions with epoxy.

What is epoxy coating?

The importance of epoxy coatings for corrosion protection cannot be overstated. The global market for epoxy coatings is predicted to grow at a CAGR of 5.32% to surpass USD 44.61 billion by 2028. It is no wonder that a quick search of the keywords ‘epoxy coating’ brings up more than 88 million results.

This article will go through the definition and main reactions that form the epoxy coating.

What is epoxy coating? Definition and working principle

Epoxy coating is a layer of protective organic polymer coated on a metallic or non-metallic substrate. It is the chemical product formed after a reaction between two componentsโ€”resin and hardener. It consists of additional components that contribute towards specific properties.

The resin is a polymer that contains the functional group epoxide which is a triangular ring of one oxygen and two carbon atoms.

Figure: Epoxide ring

This epoxide ring may then be connected to a varying number of hydrogen atoms or other C-H groups in a long polymer chain. The backbone chain may be made up of esters, acrylics, ethyl or methyl groups, etc.

The key to recognising an epoxy coating is the epoxide ring in the resin chemical structure.

The hardener may vary depending on the curing properties required for the application. Here’s a quick list of the various hardeners:

  • Amines – aliphatic, aromatic, and cycloaliphatic
  • Anhydrides
  • Phenols
  • Thiols

The reactivity of the hardeners increases in the following order:

Phenols < Anhydrides < Aromatic amines < Cycloaliphatic amines < Aliphatic amines < Thiols

The following images show the typical chemical reaction for an epoxide resin with an amine hardener. The epoxy reaction occurs in three steps:

  1. The epoxide ring in the resin reacts with the amine group in the hardener to form a secondary amine. In this step, one H atom from amine goes and forms OH with the O in the epoxide group leading to the opening up of the ring. The N gets connected with the C in the open epoxide molecule.
  2. Next, the formed secondary amine once again reacts with the epoxide group. Here, the remaining H from the secondary amine breaks the epoxide ring. H goes to the O from the epoxide group. The C from the backbone molecule connects with the N from the amine group. This reaction forms the tertiary amine.
  3. The last step is the etherification of the tertiary amines. The tertiary amine reacts with one more epoxide ring. this step is different from the previous steps because the N in the amine group does not participate in this reaction. The Hydroxyl OH groups are the active sites. The H from the OH group of the tertiary amine breaks the epoxide ring and reacts with the O to form OH. Thus, it shifts from OH in tertiary amine to OH in the epoxide group. The remaining O in the tertiary amine now forms a crosslinking bond with the C of the backbone CH2 group of the epoxide ring. This is the final epoxy coating molecule.
Figure: Reaction scheme of the epoxy resin and amine hardener to form epoxy coating.

Wrap up

Epoxy coating is a popular coating. However, its reaction mechanism is often misunderstood or not understood at all. This series of articles will cover the principle, reactions, and failures of epoxy coatings.

This article dealt with the amine + epoxy reaction. In the next part of the article, we will deal with the reaction mechanisms of other hardeners used to form epoxy coatings.

Corrosion of concrete electric poles

Concrete electric poles have been used extensively for supporting heavy transmission lines for several years. In this article, we will cover the types of concrete poles, their requirements, their corrosion, and their inspection techniques.

Source

Types of concrete poles

There are two types of concrete poles:

  • PCC: PCC stands for Plain Cement Concrete. This type of PCC pole has an entire concrete structure without any metallic reinforcement. The preparation comprises of inserting a high-tensile steel wire in a mould and stretching it to a predetermined extent. Another wire, which is galvanised steel wire, is introduced as the earth wire in the mold. The mould is then filled with concrete mix, which is then compressed. Such poles are also called pre-stressed cement concrete poles (PSC) as the compression leads to a stress generation in the concrete mix.
  • RCC: RCC is short for Reinforced cement concrete. As the name suggests, this type of concrete pole is reinforced with TMT steel bars for greater strength and endurance. In the production of RCC poles, a structure of TMT bars is first assembled and then embedded in pol-shaped concrete slabs.

Specifications

Specifications for PSC electric poles

  • Overall length of pole
  • Working load
  • Bottom depth
  • Top depth
  • Breadth
  • Depth of planting
  • Factor of safety
  • Diameter of HT pre-stressing wire
  • Minimum tensile strength of HT pre-stressing wire
  • Number of HT wire
  • Concrete grade
  • Ultimate load
  • Cube crushing strength of concrete at 28 Days
  • Allowable max compressive strength in concrete at working load

Specifications for RCC electric poles

  • Overall length of poles
  • Cement grade and composition
  • Composition and grade of aggregates
  • Mechanical properties of reinforcing bars and wires
  • Surface condition and preparation of reinforcing bars
  • Composition of admixture
  • Quality and composition of water used for concrete preparation
  • Maximum wind pressure
  • Depth of planting
  • Transverse strength at failure
  • Welding and lapping of reinforcement
  • Earthing wire installation

Corrosion of PSC and RCC poles

  • Spalling of concrete cover
  • Uniform or localized corrosion of metallic wires and bars due to ingress of moisture and oxygen through the concrete pores
  • Soil corrosion and concrete degradation in the areas buried under the earth due to ingress of chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, and moisture from the soil.
  • Saturation of concrete at the soil/atmosphere interface due to capillary absorption of groundwater due to wicking effect
  • Wind erosion of the concrete at greater heights.
  • Crevice corrosion of wires and poles at the inlet and outlet points of wires inserted in the poles.
  • Uniform corrosion of bare wires
  • Pitting corrosion at areas left bare due to insufficient or damaged coating
  • Stress corrosion cracking of the reinforcing bars or embedded wires due to local stress concentrations in the concrete

Inspection and testing

Here are a few typical inspection measures and tests conducted to assess the integrity of the concrete electric poles:

Wrap up

Concrete poles have been used extensively for transmission lines and utilities. While the basic specifications are common, there may be variations in certain parameters with respect to the location and climate.

Hence, a comprehensive view of the requirements and testing conducted globally will help assess the corrosion causes and select the most suitable inspection measures to nip the corrosion in the bud.

References

  • https://www.cracindia.in/admin/uploads/IS-785.pdf
  • https://www.wbsedcl.in/irj/go/km/docs/internet/webpage/techspec/Technical_Spec_of_Pole.pdf
  • https://www.materialsperformance.com/articles/material-selection-design/2019/01/control-of-environmental-degradation-of-concrete-power-poles
  • https://www.materialsperformance.com/articles/corrosion-basics/2020/11/bend-test-of-concrete-power-poles
  • https://www.irjet.net/archives/V8/i5/IRJET-V8I5749.pdf

Corrosion of electric poles

What are electric poles?

Electric poles are long hollow tubular poles that host
overhead electricity distribution wires. They may also have equipment to
monitor and regulate the electric supply.

What are the types of electric poles?

There are two types of electric poles:

  1. Swagedย ย 
  2. Stepped

What are the materials used for making electric poles?

  • Mild steel is the material of choice for electric poles.ย ย 
  • They are longitudinally welded tube sections of hot-rolled structural carbon steel.
  • There also has to be an MS base plate welded to the bottom of the pole.

The standards typically used to select the grade of mild steel are:

  • JIS G 3444ย ( ST-51 )
  • DIN 17100 (ST-52)
  • BS-4360
  • IS: 2713 (Part โ€“ I, II): 1980ย 

Chief mechanical properties requiredย 

  • Tensile strength
  • Yield strength

The specifications for the poles include the following
parameters:

  • Maximum Ambient temperature
  • Minimum ambient temperature
  • Maximum relative humidity 
  • Average number of thunderstorm day per annum
  • Maximum no. of rainy days/annum
  • Average Rainfall
  • Maximum Wind pressure/wind speed
  • Height above sea level (m) not exceeding
  • Earthquake acceleration horizontal seismic co-efficient

Corrosion-prone areas of electric poles

  1. The weld area of the bottom plate may undergo galvanic or uniform corrosion. It may also experience weld decay due to chlorides in the soil.
  2. The surface of poles is susceptible to uniform corrosion.
  3. Microbial corrosion of area submerged in soil.
  4. Crevice corrosion is possible at overlaps and fixtures.
  5. Pitting corrosion at areas where water can accumulate, such as nooks and corners in the design.
  6. Erosion corrosion of upper areas of the poles may occur due to dust carried through the wind.
  7. Coating delamination and uniform corrosion underneath is possible due to moisture absorption.

Coatings for electric poles

The coatings recommended for electric poles consist of the layers of the following components:

  • Galvanization layer
  • Red oxide paint
  • Black bituminous paint from the bottom of the pole up to the region buried in the soil
  • Long-oil alkyd with aluminium, zinc, or stainless steel dust
  • Epoxy coating as sealer

References

Common electrochemical tests for corrosion

Once the connections are made, the next step is to decide which electrochemical test to perform. The following are the major tests used for corrosion testing โ€“

  1. Potentiodynamic polarizationโ€”Tafel and Linear
  2. Potentiostatic polarization
  3. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

Out of these tests, the first two are destructive tests, while the last one is the non-destructive test. The tests are briefly described subsequently.

1.     Potentiodynamic polarization

The term โ€˜Potentiodynamicโ€™ means a varying potential. In this test, the potential of the WE is imposed from a large negative value w.r.t the OCP to a large positive value w.r.t OCP. The rationale behind this variation is as followsโ€”

When the WE is at a highly negative potential, it works as a cathode and supports cathodic reactions such as oxygen reduction, hydrogen evolution, and others. Here, the CE acts as the anode. The cathodic current density is higher than the anodic current density.

As the potential approaches the OCP, the rates of anodic and cathodic reactions become equal, and the potential is the corrosion potential. At this point, the WE is now anodic, but it is corroding at an equilibrium potential. The CE now supports cathodic reactions, which have the same rate as the WE.

As the potential is increased above OCP, the anodic current density of WE increases, and it starts corroding faster. The CE continues to support cathodic reactions.

The current changes with each step change in the potential. This value is measured and converted into current density (current per unit of area exposed to electrolyte). A plot of potential vs. current density is plotted. This is called the Tafel plot.

If it is a linear polarization, the steps in the test remain exactly as given above. The only difference is that the plot is now potential vs. current density. The typical plots look as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: (a) Tafel plot; and (b) Linear polarization

The major quantities derived from these tests are corrosion potential (Ecorr), corrosion current density (icorr), and polarization resistance (Rp). The higher the icorr, the higher is the corrosion rate. In fact, it is also used to calculate the rate in mpy or mmpy. Further, the lower the Rp, the higher is the corrosion.

Most of the tests given in Table 1 are variations of this polarization.

2.     Potentiostatic polarization

The term โ€˜potentiostaticโ€™ means the potential is kept constant for a pre-determined length of time. The potential may be OCP, or a value positive or negative w.r.t OCP. The current will vary depending on the reactions occurring at the WE.

If the WE and CE are identical, then this technique measures the โ€˜electrochemical noise (EN)โ€™. Electrochemical noise indicates the pit formation-destruction cycles in terms of current variation. Figure 3 shows the typical plots for potential and current measurements with time.

The data is usually detrended, i.e., any variation due to external factors, is mathematically removed, to arrive at normalized values. These are further analyzed to obtain the noise resistance, which is the resistance to pitting.

The ASTM standard G199-09(2020) specifies the requirements of EN.

Figure 3: Electrochemical noise: (a) Potential vs. time, with detrended line, and (b) Current vs. time with detrended line

3.     Electrochemical Impedance spectroscopy

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy uses an alternating current (AC) method of application of potential. The level of potential applied is low (around 10 mV), and it is cycled between +10 to -10 at different frequencies. The resulting current is mathematically resolved into impedance. It is plotted into Bode and Nyquist plots to arrive at the extent of damage of the WE.

The Bode plot shows the variation of the total electrochemical impedance vs. frequency in Hz. This impedance is resolved into real and imaginary components using Eulerโ€™s equation, which are plotted in the Nyquist plot.

Figure 4: (a) Bode plot presenting impedance s. frequency, and (b) Nyquist plot presenting imaginary component of impedance vs. real component of impedance

The Bode impedance represents the barrier to corrosion. For coatings, it represents the barrier to the ingress of the electrolyte. The shape may include a slope, a plateau or a combination of both, depending on the condition of the system.

Typically, a slope represents a capacitive behaviour, aka more barrier protection/corrosion resistance. The evolution of a resistive plateau signals a degradation of the barrier properties.

Final thoughts

Electrochemical corrosion testing is crucial in the oil and gas industry to arrive at a more accurate corrosion rate. It considers localized corrosion of the material during testing. Hence, it can be applied to especially those materials which do not show uniform corrosion before failure.

It indicates those materials which are more likely to pit and crack. Thus, electrochemical corrosion testing should be made a more integral part of the testing portfolio of the oil and gas industry, than it is now.

While most of the testing is done by third-party laboratories, field personnel should know its nitty-gritty to be able to recommend the tests and use their results to prevent corrosion in their facilities.

If you would like to revisit the basics, here is the first part of this article!

Introduction to electrochemical techniques for corrosion testing

Need for electrochemical techniques

Corrosion is the electrochemical degradation of metals and alloys. A simultaneous occurrence of anodic and cathodic reactions is seen in aqueous corrosion. In the oil and gas industry, most of the corrosion is measured in terms of corrosion rates โ€“ mmpy or mpy. which are employed in terms of the โ€˜corrosion allowanceโ€™, namely the wall thickness. However, these terms assume that all the corrosion is uniform corrosion, with consistent thickness reduction everywhere in the component walls.

This leads to a neglect of the localized corrosion phenomenon with disastrous consequences. The localized corrosion, specifically pitting, starts at an atomic level and propagates in an autocatalytic manner. It remains undetectable till the pit perforates the wall and causes a leak or cracks to develop at the pits. Hence, the corrosion rate in mpy is not always the correct method to gauge or plan for the corrosion damage.

Categories and standards for electrochemical corrosion testing

Electrochemical testing methods work based on the changes in potential and current. As such, they can detect the conditions which lead to the formation of pits and other localized corrosion phenomena. They are categorized as follows โ€”

  1. Cyclic and linear sweep voltammetry (CV)
  2. Chronopotentiometry (CP)
  3. Chronoamperometry (CA)
  4. Impedance spectroscopy (EIS)

ASTM standards

Some ASTM standards which specify the test used for corrosion testing  are given in the table 1โ€”

Table 1: ASTM standards for electrochemical corrosion testing
No.ASTM StandardDescription
1.D8370-22Standard Test Method for Field Measurement of Electrochemical Impedance on Coatings and Linings
2.F1113-87(2017)Standard Test Method for Electrochemical Measurement of Diffusible Hydrogen in Steels (Barnacle Electrode)
3.G3-14(2019)Standard Practice for Conventions Applicable to Electrochemical Measurements in Corrosion Testing
4.G5-14(2021)Standard Reference Test Method for Making Potentiodynamic Anodic Polarization Measurements
5.G59-97(2020)Standard Test Method for Conducting Potentiodynamic Polarization Resistance Measurements
6.G61-86(2018)Standard Test Method for Conducting Cyclic Potentiodynamic Polarization Measurements for Localized Corrosion Susceptibility of Iron-, Nickel-, or Cobalt-Based Alloys
7.G71-81(2019)Standard Guide for Conducting and Evaluating Galvanic Corrosion Tests in Electrolytes
8.G96-90(2018)Standard Guide for Online Monitoring of Corrosion in Plant Equipment (Electrical and Electrochemical Methods)
9.G100-89(2021)Standard Test Method for Conducting Cyclic Galvanostaircase Polarization
10.G102-23Standard Practice for Calculation of Corrosion Rates and Related Information from Electrochemical Measurements
11.G106-89(2015)Standard Practice for Verification of Algorithm and Equipment for Electrochemical Impedance Measurements
12.G108-94(2015)Standard Test Method for Electrochemical Reactivation (EPR) for Detecting Sensitization of AISI Type 304 and 304L Stainless Steels
13.G148-97(2018)Standard Practice for Evaluation of Hydrogen Uptake, Permeation, and Transport in Metals by an Electrochemical Technique
14.G150-18Standard Test Method for Electrochemical Critical Pitting Temperature Testing of Stainless Steels and Related Alloys
15.G180-21Standard Test Method for Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures for Steel in Concrete by Polarization Resistance in Cementitious Slurries
16.G199-09(2020)Standard Guide for Electrochemical Noise Measurement

Equipment and test setup

1.     Potentiostat

The most important equipment required for electrochemical testing is the potentiostat. The potentiostat is an arrangement of a voltmeter, an ammeter, a power source, and a rheostat (variable resistor). Figure 1 shows the typical arrangement. The function of the rheostat is to change the current flowing through the circuit when the power is switched on. The variations in the potential are measured by the voltmeter, and the corresponding current is measured by the ammeter. The potentiostat is connected to a power source.

Figure 1: Typical arrangement of a three-electrode setup with internal parts of potentiostatโ€”A: ammeter, V: voltmeter, Rh: rheostat, WE: working electrode, RE: reference electrode, and CE: counter electrode.

2.     Electrodes

The test setup has three electrodes โ€“ working, counter, and reference. The working electrode (WE) is the material of the component which needs to be tested. The reference electrode (RE) measures the potential of the working electrode. The counter electrode (CE) is used to complete the circuit and support the chemical reactions.

The sequence of connections is specific to the role played by each component and each electrode. The working electrode is the one that is to be measured, namely the sample. Its potential is an indicator of its active or noble quality. The potential is called โ€˜open circuit potentialโ€™ or โ€˜OCPโ€™. It is also the potential where the corrosion of the working electrode is freely occurring in the electrolyte without any externally applied voltage. It is measured against the reference electrode, which can be silver-silver chloride, saturated calomel, etc, with the help of the voltmeter. Hence, one wire will go from the working electrode to the reference electrode via the voltmeter.

In the second step, the rheostat must be in series with the power source, so that the current flow can be changed. To measure the current flow, the ammeter is required, which is also in series. This external voltage must be imposed on the working electrode. So, one wire will connect the working electrode to the series circuit of ammeter and rheostat. The voltage will effect chemical reactions (either oxidation/reduction) at the working electrode. The corresponding reactions will occur at the counter electrode. Hence, the counter electrode is now connected to the ammeter. This will ensure that there is a complete circuit for the current flow that is measured by the ammeter.

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